Fillable Printable Letter For Proposal For Business
Fillable Printable Letter For Proposal For Business
Letter For Proposal For Business
Formal Reports
and Proposals
9
T
he distinctions betw een formal and informal reports ar e often b lurred.Nev ertheless,
a formal report is usually written to someone in another company or organization.
Occasionally it is written for a senior manager in the same company,or for someone with
whom the writer has little regular contact. Usually it is longer than an informal report
and requires more extensive research.Unless you are a consultant,you are unlikely to be
asked to write a formal report often.When you are, there may be a lot riding on it—
including your reputation.
The purpose of this c hapter is to show you how to write a for mal repor t and how to
put together the kind of proposal that often pr ecedes it.As Figure 9-1 shows,man y of the
elements of for mal repor ts are the same as those for informal ones. You need to pay the
same attention to headings, lists, and illustrations, for example. Although much of the
advice in the previous chapter could be duplicated in this one,the emphasis here will be
on those areas where there’s a difference.
Figure 9-1 Contrasting Features of Informal and Formal Reports
Informal Formal
Reader often internal often external or distant
within organization
Length • usually short • usually long (3 pages or more)
• several sections • sections and subsections
Tone • personal • more impersonal
• contractions • no contractions
Summary integrated on separate page
Introduction no heading can have one or more headings
Title appears as subject line appears on separate title page
in memo heading
Transmittal page optional covering letter or memo
Contents page none useful if report is over 5 pages
The Four R’s of Planning
As emphasized earlier, the first step in planning any piece of correspondence is to think
about the reason for writing and about the receiver. For a long, for mal report you need
to add two more R’s to your planning sheet:restrictions and research.
Assessing the Reason for Writing and the Receiver
As discussed in Chapter 2, formal reports are usually less personal than informal ones.
They omit the contractions of personal conversation and tend to name fewer individuals.
Traditionally, formal reports have tried to give a sense of objectivity by omitting the
personal I.As a result, passages were often convoluted and difficult to read.While I-free
reports are still the practice in some circles, business writers are increasingly using I in
formal reports to produce clearer and more forceful writing. (In informal reports,
personal pronouns are not only tolerated but recommended.) However,avoid “I think”or
“in my opinion” phrases when you can complete the thought without them:
X I found that the fittings were defective.
√ The fittings were defective.
X In my view, the market value will rise in the spring.
√ Market value will probably rise in the spring.
If you are par t of a group,you can also refer to we, since the collective weight of a g roup
seems more objective than that of an individual.In any case,use I rather than referr ing to
yourself imper sonally as the writer or the author.
Determining Restrictions
What are the limitations on the resources that will be available to help you with the
report?
1. Financial What will be your budget? What expenses will be involved and
is the budget adequate to cover them?
2. Personnel Will you have the services of a good typist or illustrator? Will
outside help be required?
3. Time What is your deadline? Create a realistic time line on a graph with
the various stages of the repor t plotted on it at specific dates—so many days
or weeks for researc h, organizing,writing,editing, and final production.The
larger the task,the more impor tant these self-imposed dates become.In
193Chapter 9 Formal Reports and Proposals
allocating time,you may be wise to leave a margin of er ror for delays,
whether from bureaucratic mix-ups or postal problems.
Deciding on Research
Before beginning your research, explore the subject itself to avoid taking too narrow a
path and overlooking important alternatives.Good questions are an effective stimulus for
seeing different perspectives on an issue.Here are some ways to start:
1. Brainstorming By yourself or with a colleague,blitz the subject.Jot
down all the questions you can think of that relate to the topic,in whatever
order they occur. Don’t be negative or rule anything out at this point.
2. Tree Diagram Assume that the subject is the tr unk and add as many large
and small branches as you can to represent the different aspects of the
subject.Again,think of the branches as questions.Tree diagramming can be
useful by itself or as a second stage of random brainstorming.
Figure 9-2 Example of a Tree Diagram
budget cut
stale approach
Advertising
Weakness
outdated design
Reasons for
Product Lag
Drop in Sales
new features needed
consumer spending down
Price Resistance
poor economy
product a luxury item
cheap imports
3. Journalist’s Approach In researching a stor y,jour nalists consider the
W’s of repor ting:Who? What? When? Where? Why? For your research
planning,try asking the same five questions and add another:How? Use the
basic questions to for mulate other subquestions.
4. The 3C Approach A more thorough way to explore a topic is to ask
questions about three areas:
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Impact: A Guide to Business Communication
• Components How can the subject be divided? How many different ways
are there to partition it?
• Change What are the changed or c hang ing elements of the subject? What
are the causes or effects of cer tain actions? What trends are there?
• Context What is the larger issue or field into whic h this subject fits? How
have other s dealt with the problems associated with the subject?
Once you have stretched your mind exploring the possibilities of a subject, move in the
other direction.Think of limiting the subject and working out the precise focus of your
study.Weigh the time and expense of the research against its impor tance to the report.
Remember that it’s better to do a limited topic well than a broad one superficially.
Finding Information
1. Use librarians. For some of your researc h you may have to turn to
government documents or academic studies.Librarians can be a g reat help
in finding infor mation or showing the fastest way to get it.
2. Do a computer search. Most librar ies now have access to extensive
databases that allow you to source needed infor mation quickly by computer.
For example, a computer searc h can show you where to find all the ar ticles,
books,and reviews on a topic. It can itemize a cer tain kind of transaction or
economic activity over a given period of time.CD-ROM indexes enable you
to search by author,by title,or by keyword, sometimes g iving br ief
summaries or even the full text of each ar ticle.When you enter the
keywords that descr ibe the limits of your topic (for example,free trade,
auto par ts, Canada), the computer searc h will list the material relating to
that combination of terms.Although much of the same reference mater ial is
available in books,your library may not have all of them, or they may not be
as up to date as the computerized material. Besides, it’s a muc h slower
process to search through books.
A librarian can guide you to the most relevant database for your topic.
3. Access infor mation online. E-mail and the Inter net provide access to
newsgroups,discussion lists,and forums that focus on specific subjects.
Possibly the most powerful research tool of all, however, is the World Wide
Web.Using searc h engines suc h as AltaVista or Excite or a directory suc h as
Yahoo,you can look for online articles on any subject.Today writing and
research is commonly published on a Web site,providing a r ic h source of
infor mation,par ticularly on current subjects.
195Chapter 9 Formal Reports and Proposals
4.Look for inside sources. If you are doing a repor t on a par ticular
company or organization,don’t overlook the most accessible source of
infor mation—inter nal records and the employees themselves.Many an
unsuspecting repor t wr iter has spent days searc hing for facts readily
available in inter nal files.If the topic is one of continuing concern to the
company,chances are that someone has looked at it,or an aspect of it,
before.Some of the facts from an earlier investigation may be out of date,
but it’s likely that other infor mation is timely and relevant.
Even when an earlier repor t doesn’t exist, it is still sensible to find out if
other people have worked on the topic.They are usually glad to discuss the
issues.A short telephone inquir y or memo may save you valuable research
time or give you helpful suggestions for your exploration.Reinventing the
wheel does nobody any good.
5. Check the reliability of information. Establish whether any of the
second-hand facts you get from your research will need verifying.
Remember that a source with a special interest may exaggerate or gloss over
cer tain infor mation, often unconsciously. Even statistical data should
undergo scr utiny.Any obser ver of election polls and campaigns knows that
while statistics may not lie,they can cer tainly distor t. If you have to get
fresh data through a questionnaire or sur vey,make sure the results are as
reliable and valid as possible.If you are not familiar with proper sampling
techniques and have no knowledge of statistical reliability,consult someone
who is competent in those areas.The cost of obtaining outside help may be
less than the cost of losing your credibility through faulty data.
Managing Information
1. Use file cards. In doing lengthy research,many people find that file cards
are an efficient way to record and keep trac k of details.Use a separate card
for each different item of infor mation you gather—whether the item is an
opinion or an impor tant statistic. You can then shuffle the cards according to
the order you have chosen for the findings.Drafting the findings section of a
repor t is much easier if the sequence of information is already in front of
you.
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If you are gathering information from a published source,remember to
include the bibliographical infor mation on the card (author,title,publisher,
place of publication, and page number) so that you don’t have to spend time
chasing down the reference later.
2. Create an outline. Some writer s find that they work best by banging out
a first draft as quic kly as possible without wor rying about details.Others
work best when they have a detailed plan in front of them.It doesn’t matter
what method you c hoose,as long as at some point you carefully ar range the
material so that each little bit is in the best place.Although with a shor t
infor mal repor t you may not feel the need for an outline,with lengthy
for mal repor ts an outline is almost a prerequisite for avoiding muddles.
The outline can be in point for m or in full sentences.Numbering eac h
section will help you keep in mind the relative value of each.Whichever
numbering system you use for your outline,you can repeat it in the body of
the repor t and in the table of contents.
Figure 9-3 Example of a Point-Form Outline
Reasons for Drop in Sales
1. Advertising Weakness A. Budget cut
B. Stale approach
2. Product Lag A. Outdated design
B. Need for new features
3. Price Resistance A. Poor economy
i. consumer spending down
ii. product a luxury item
B. Cheap imports
Organizing Formal Reports
Although many var iations are possible, a typical repor t structure looks like Figure 9-4.
Since you will begin your writing process with the main section,let’s begin by looking
at var ious methods of str uctur ing the body of your repor t.
197Chapter 9 Formal Reports and Proposals
Main Section
Although the sections will vary according to the subject,the basic principles of organizing
are the same as for informal reports.
For readers who will be interested or pleased, use the direct approach. Here is the
most common model:
Summary
Introduction
Recommendations and/or Conclusions
Discussion of Findings
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Figure 9-4 Structure of a Formal Report
Front Section Title Page
Letter of Transmittal
Table of Contents
Main Section Summary
Introduction
Discussion of Findings
Conclusions and Recommendations
Back Section References
Appendix
A less common variation of this direct approach is useful when there is a lengthy list of
recommendations:
Summary
Introduction
Summary of Recommendations
Discussion of Findings
Details of Recommendations
When readers will be displeased or skeptical, the indirect approach will lead them
gradually toward the conclusions or recommendations:
Summary
Introduction
Discussion of Findings
Conclusions and/or Recommendations
The indirect approach is sometimes used in government and consulting circles, even
when the readers are interested. The trend is toward the direct approach, however,
especially for busy readers.
The preceding suggestions are not an ironclad prescription for every repor t.You may
want to change or add some sections. You may also have to adapt the following advice
about what to put in each section. Let ease of under standing be the guide.
Summary
A summary for a formal report—often called an executive summary—is really a
condensation of the most important points.Unlik e the introductory summary that begins
most shor t informal repor ts, the summar y for a formal repor t is put on a separate page
with a heading. It’s not an introduction to the report, but a synopsis—the report
199Chapter 9 Formal Reports and Proposals
condensed. It’s a convenience for the reader and may be the only part that senior
management reads,but the repor t can make sense without it.For this reason,it’s best to
write the summar y after you have completed the body of the repor t.
The summary doesn’t have to g ive equal weight to all sections of the repor t. It often
has only a brief account of the backg round or methodology, and may even omit them if
they are unimportant. By contrast, it usually pays most attention to the conclusions or
recommendations. On rare occasions, if the list of recommendations is lengthy, the title
may be simply “Summar y of Recommendations.”
Generally in a summary it’s best to follow the order of the report.That is,if the report
takes the direct approach, so should the summary. Similarly, if the repor t has an indirect
order,the summary should be indirect.
In the interest of brevity:
• use lists where possible;
• omit examples,unless the example is a key finding;
• stick to the facts, avoiding unneeded references to the repor t itself. For
example,instead of saying,“The Findings section reveals . ..” simply put a
heading,“Findings,”and list the facts.
Since there is a subtle psycholog ical bar r ier to tur ning a page,especially for a reader who
is extremely busy, try to keep the summary to a single sheet. If this seems an impossible
task for a complicated or length y r eport,remember Winston Churchill’s instruction to the
First Lord of the Admiralty in the midst of the Second World War:“Pray state this day,on
one side of a sheet of paper, how the Royal Navy is being adapted to meet the conditions
of moder n warfare”(Ogilvy,1983,p.35). Is your task more difficult than this one?
Introduction
This section may have a heading other than “Introduction,” depending on the focus, and
may have several subsections.It can include several or all of these topics:
• Purpose As in an infor mal repor t, a one-sentence explanation may be
enough.
• Background Many repor t wr iter s make the mistake of g iving too much
backg round. Include only the information needed to put the repor t in
perspective.If explaining the reasons for the repor t, a total history is rarely
needed.Focus on those conditions that have influenced the purpose and
design of the repor t.If you do have to include a lot of material,you should
probably have a separate section on background.
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• Scope Here you define the topic precisely and reveal any assumptions you
have made affecting the direction or boundaries of your investigation. If
there are constraints or difficulties that limit the study in some way, say
what they are.By doing so,you will help forestall criticisms that you didn’t
cover the area properly.
• Method If your findings are based on a questionnaire or sur vey of some
sor t, outline the steps you took.Repor ts with a heavy scientific emphasis
often include an explanation of the technical processes used in the
investigation.The process of infor mation-gathering is especially relevant
when the data is “soft”—that is,open to dispute.Again, if the explanation is
lengthy,consider putting it as a separate section.
Discussion of Findings
This is the largest section in most formal reports, and discusses the details of your
investigation,the facts on which you have based your conclusions or recommendations.It
should be subdivided,with numbered and descr iptive subheadings.(It may be possible to
give the section itself a more specific heading than “Discussion” or “Findings.”)
In choosing the best arrangement for findings,remember tha t the most effectiv e order
is the one that most easily leads the reader to the conclusions or recommendations.As
with informal reports, you can arrange findings by category or topic, by geographic or
chronolog ical order, or by order of impor tance.
How many subsections should a repor t have? It’s a matter of judgment.Don’t have so
many that the section is more like a long shopping list than a discussion. On the other
hand,don’t have so few that there’s a thic ket of information in eac h one.
Conclusions and/or Recommendations
While some repor ts have both conclusions and recommendations, many have one or the
other. Conclusions are the inferences you have made from your findings;
recommendations are suggestions about what actions to take. A long, research-based
report generall y gives conclusions;a pr oblem-solving r eport,r ecommendations .Her e are
some tips for both types:
• If there are several recommendations or conclusions,separate them in a list
or in subsections.
• Nor mally, put the most impor tant recommendation (or conclusion) first. If
you face a skeptical or hostile reader, however,you might make an
exception,and put the most controversial recommendation last,even if it is
the major one.
201Chapter 9 Formal Reports and Proposals
• Number the recommendations or conclusions,making them easier to refer
to. Number s will also reinforce the fact that there are more than one.
Otherwise,in later discussions the reader may focus on the most important
or controversial point and forget that there are others.
• Be as specific as possible about how eac h recommendation should be carr ied
out and who should be responsible.Some repor ts have an implementation
subsection for each recommendation.Others have a specific action plan at
the end of the repor t,outlining all the steps that should be taken.
• If implementation details are not feasible,consider including a
recommendation to set up an implementation committee or task force.If
your recommendations do include the details of implementation,suggest a
follow-up mechanism so that manager s or depar tments will get feedbac k on
the results.
With the main section of the repor t in place,you are now ready to add the pages for the
front and back sections.
Front Section
Title Page
Centre the information and arrange it so that it extends downward over most of the
length of the page.Include:
• the title of the repor t,in bold type or in capital letter s
• the name and title of the intended reader
• the name of the writer and the wr iter’s title (or the name of the firm, if the
repor t is by an outside consultant)
• the date
Letter of Transmittal
A letter of transmittal is a covering letter, given in letter or memo form, depending on
whether it is going to someone outside or inside the writer’s organization.It provides the
extra personal touc h that for mal repor ts generally lac k.A covering letter is usually brief
and follows this pattern:
• an opening statement,“transmitting”the repor t to the reader and stating its
title or purpose (for example,“Here is the repor t you requested on ...”)
• a brief outline of the major conclusions or recommendations
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